Healing Oswald: A Journey Into Medieval Medicine

Medieval Medicine: Blood, Leeches, and a Dash of Magic

Getting sick in the Middle Ages was like rolling the dice—sometimes you got better, and sometimes you didn’t. Medicine back then wasn’t exactly grounded in science as we know it today. Instead, it was a mix of ancient Greek theories, religious beliefs, and a little bit of superstition for good measure. With no microscopes, no antibiotics, and no idea that germs even existed, medieval doctors had to rely on what they thought caused illness—and let’s just say their theories weren’t always spot on.

Medieval Doctor analyzing a patient's urine. (often the color, smell, and yes, even the taste, could tell a doctor what was wrong.

Balancing the Humors: Why You Might Be Sick

Medieval doctors believed your body was ruled by four humors—blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Each humor was tied to an element (earth, air, fire, or water) and a personality type. If your humors got out of balance, you were in trouble. Too much blood? You might have a fever. Too much black bile? Depression. The solution? Adjust the humors! Treatments included bloodletting, purging, and sweating—basically, anything that involved getting rid of something from your body. Leeches were a popular tool for bloodletting, and patients often left their doctor’s office a little lighter than when they arrived.

Chart showing the four liquids that medieval doctors thought made up the human body: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.

The Medical Lineup: Who’s Taking Care of You?

If you got sick, your treatment depended on how much money you had and where you lived. Medicine wasn’t one-size-fits-all, and healers came in different forms:

1. University-Trained Physicians
At the top of the medical hierarchy were physicians—the medieval equivalent of celebrity doctors. These guys were educated at universities and trained in ancient Greek and Roman texts, especially the works of Hippocrates and Galen. They knew a lot about theory but not so much about hands-on care. Since dissecting human bodies was banned by the Catholic Church, their knowledge of anatomy was more imagination than observation. They relied heavily on astrology charts and urine samples to diagnose patients—yes, doctors actually sniffed and tasted urine to figure out what was wrong. Only the wealthy could afford their services, and even then, results were hit or miss.

2. Barber-Surgeons
If you couldn’t afford a physician, your next stop might be the barber-surgeon. These men were jacks-of-all-trades, skilled with sharp tools for cutting hair, pulling teeth, setting bones, and performing surgery. Need a limb amputated? They’d saw it off—hopefully fast enough to avoid too much screaming. In an era before anesthetics, people avoided surgery unless they absolutely had to. Barber-surgeons also specialized in bloodletting, which they believed could cure everything from headaches to fevers. Their striped red-and-white poles, still seen outside modern barber shops, symbolized the blood-soaked bandages of their trade.

3. Village Herbalists
For everyday aches and pains, most people turned to herbalists—often women who learned remedies passed down through generations. These village healers used plants, roots, and even animal parts to make salves, teas, and poultices. While some cures worked surprisingly well, others were more about hope than science. Because their knowledge came from pagan traditions, they often clashed with the Church, which sometimes accused them of witchcraft. Despite the risk, these healers were a lifeline for villagers who couldn’t afford fancy doctors.

4. Street Vendors and Quacks
If you were desperate—or just easily fooled—you might try a street vendor selling miracle cures and potions. These traveling salesmen promised to heal everything from baldness to the plague with their snake oils and elixirs. Many of their potions contained a mix of alcohol, herbs, crushed minerals, or even ground-up insects. Some ingredients, like opium or mercury, may have provided temporary relief but often did more harm than good. Sellers often made outrageous claims, advertising their products as cures for blindness, infertility, or even eternal youth. While most of these remedies were useless, they were marketed with enough flair to make desperate people hand over their coins.

Why It Matters

Medieval medicine might seem strange to us today, but it laid the foundation for modern medical practices. While some treatments were downright dangerous, others—like herbal remedies—paved the way for modern pharmacology. The idea of balancing humors may have been off the mark, but it showed early attempts to understand the human body. Medieval medicine also highlights the power of belief—whether in religion, tradition, or the wisdom of healers—and reminds us how far we’ve come in understanding health and disease. So, the next time you reach for antibiotics or schedule a surgery, take a moment to appreciate that no one is bringing out the leeches!